The Consensus Process Effects on the Decision Making

The decision making role of groups has been widely recognized and accepted from the time of the Greek empire that formed democratic voting structures and is still in use at the present day. Group decision making can be observed in group such as the legislatures, when they debate on the bill that are to be passed into law; juries, when they pass judgement on defendants and suggest the sentence, or amount of damages awarded to the plaintiff; and school boards decide on the structure of the school curriculum, among others.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Consensus Process Effects on the Decision Making specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The important decisions are observed to be dependent on the agreement of the involved parties in a group, as opposed to an individual (Satzinger, Garfield, Nagasundaram, 1999). Groups are observed to be greater than individuals when it comes to decision making. This is be cause groups represent a broader variety of perspectives, which makes their arguments fair through provision of numerous materials, upon which decisions can be made. In addition to this, group decision making is perceived to be better than making of vital decisions by individuals, as portrayed in the notion that â€Å"two is better than one†. A lot of research has been conducted on both the fairness and performance of group decisions, to investigate the processes via which groups reach consensus on a solution. The research was also aimed at finding out the effect of the consensus processes on the value and accuracy of the final response (Davis Hinsz, 1982). Information processing at group level Group decision making is a task that is based on individual member inclinations as the legal contribution for the choice of the group. Recent research has begun to observe groups as information processing systems, thereby viewing cognition as an extra legal level of aggregation. Accor ding to Hinsz et al. (1997) information processing at the group level refers to â€Å"the degree to which information, ideas, or cognitive processes are shared among group members. Kameda, Tindale, and Davis (2002) have suggested that social sharing is a phenomenon with various levels that are necessary for the understanding of group decision making at the response and cognitive level. The arguments of the authors above are all focused on one particular aspect of group decision processes and outcomes, and that is the magnificent influence of ideas shared among a majority of the group members. The aspect of social sharing is also dependent on various group features including preferences, information, group identities and metacognitions, among others (Brauner Scholl, 2000).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The three levels of social sharing are therefore preferences, cognitio ns and metacognitions. The magnitude of sharing is vital at each level, and is therefore a key factor in knowing how groups reach consensus as well as the decision alternative or judgement position of which the group eventually decides (Abrams, Marques, Bwon, Henson, 2000). One of the common forms of group decision making occurs in interacting groups, whereby the group members meet face-to-face and depend on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other. A study of group thinking showed that interacting groups whereby members meet face-to-face, thereby relying on communication by verbal and non verbal interaction are the most common. The study further indicated that interacting groups censor themselves a lot, and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion (Davis Hinsz, 1982). Social Decision Scheme Theory One of the main problems with group-decision making has been the impact of individual member preferences on the final choice of the group, ma king individual preferences a main locus of group interaction. This theory suggests that small group interaction are observed to be combinatorial processes, whereby the preferred options by the group members are pooled together to allow the group to arrive at an agreement on one choice, acceptable to all members. This process of pooling suggestions is dependent on the task of the group, and the environment, among other factors. The theory is based on examining the aggregation process with a view to obtaining the most appropriate summary of the group’s ideas, in any particular setting. This analysis allows candidates of combinatorial processes that may operate in the decision setting to be represented as stochastic matrices referred to as decision schemes (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, Converse, 1993). According to the proportionality model, the probability that the members of a group will pick one specific option is the proportion of members favouring that option. The proportionalit y model assumes that divisions within the group are only as powerful as the relative size of that division (Davis, 1973). According to the majority-equiprobability otherwise model, whenever the majority of group members favour a particular decision alternative, then that alternative will be the one selected. In the event of an equal split is agreement between any two alternatives, then the selection of either is likely to be the choice of the group. The majority Group equiprobability otherwise model assumes that majority factions are quite powerful and typically define the group’s choice (Godwin Restle, 1974). Group decision making techniques Most of the problems in the traditional interacting group can be eliminated through a variety of ways including brainstorming, nominal group technique, and electronic meetings.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Consensus Process Effects on the Decision Making specifically for you for only $16. 05 $11/page Learn More Brainstorming Brain storming overcomes pressures for conformity in the interacting group that slow down the process of developing creative alternatives by using an idea generation procedure that motivates all the options, while keeping away any criticism of the options. The groups involved in brainstorming are observed to comprise six to twelve members, whereby one of them is the group leader, who informs the other members in a clear manner of the problem proposed. The next step involves the members providing a variety of alternatives within a limited time period. Criticism is not allowed, and discussions on the ideas are conducted much later to facilitate broad thinking. Brainstorming is more focused on generating ideas than arriving at a preferred solution (Godwin Restle, 1974). Nominal group technique The method requires the presence of all members, though discussions are restricted, so that the members can operate by themselves. Once the pr oblem is presented to the group, the individual members write down their opinions. The next step requires the members to present one idea to the other members, without any interruptions. The next step requires the members to discuss and evaluate the ideas, before voting for them by ranking them in order of most preferable. This method allows groups to meet formally without restricting independent thinking like the interacting groups (Hackman, 1987). Electronic meetings The process involves various people sitting around a horseshoe-shaped table, with nothing except computer terminals through which issues are presented to the members, allowing them to respond by typing. Personal comments and suggestions are shown on a projection screen in the room. The method allows the group members to anonymously provide their input. This promotes honesty, and speed of decision making, since people do not fumble with ideas, but present them for all to see, without much chit chat (Hogg, 2001). Choice of technique Based on the main objectives of a particular group, the group members can pick any kind of technique for the group decision making. Interacting groups are preferable where it is necessary to build group cohesion, whereas brainstorming would be appropriate to minimize social pressures. The nominal group technique is cost effective, and electronic meetings are fast. To control the behaviour of group members, it is necessary to have norms that establish standards of right and wrong. These norms should support high output by encouraging individual performance. Frustration can also kick in due to status inequities, therefore influencing productivity and willingness to remain with an organization (Hinsz, 1999). The task of the group decides its size, since activities requiring fact finding would appreciate larger groups while action-taking tasks would require smaller groups. According to research conducted on social loafing, it was suggested that measures should be introduce d to assess individual performance within a large group (Hastie, 1986).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Group conflict Conflicts within the group have been observed to arise during the interpretation of group task outcome, as well as the solution scheme. This conflict is usually greater for groups with more members due to more task interpretations. Such conflict is an obstacle that prevents the effective decision making due to disruption of the exchange of information. Researchers have observed the effective operations of groups based on conflict. Conflict can be used constructively to encourage detailed assessment of the available unique options from individual members by interrogating based on the assumptions made, and therefore arriving at solutions and recommendations (Henrich Boyd, 1998). According to (Godwin Restle, 1974) conflict is multi-dimensional, as opposed to monolithic. Researchers have observed the importance of managing conflicts productively as it affects the performance of the group. Godwin and Restle (1974) observed that cognitive conflict was task oriented, and w as as a result of differences in judgement, whereas affective conflict was based on personal disaffection or disagreement. Hackman (1986) noted that the latter was barrier to the effective functioning of group, though the former could be useful in moderation, and even resulting in improved group performance. Task conflict can be induced in groups via two methods namely devil’s advocacy and dialectical inquiry. The former refers to the critical scrutiny of the plan or proposal of a group, whereas dialectical inquiry implies the development of counter plans and therefore question assumptions underlying the proposal of the group. Induced task conflicts using the two methods has been observed to result in improved group performance as compare to consensus based groups (Schweiger, Sandberg, Ragan, 1986). Conflicts arise due to the divergence in goals and interests among the members even though their interests in the outcome are similar. Researchers have argued that conflict can m ake corporate groups more effective when used effectively. Use of organizational memory Group work in organization is nowadays supported by technology. Organizational memory (OM) has been observed to be a key element in the success of group work. OM stores information obtained from previous works of the group members, therefore, facilitates group learning, offers justification for group decisions and improves the efficiency of group decision makers. Organizational memory has been observed to have the limitation of being biased, since it provides references of past thoughts and suggestions, which may hinder the exploration of diverse viewpoints other than the ones presented. Conflict inducing mechanisms have been observed to solve this problem (Schweiger, Sandberg, Ragan, 1986). According to (Hinsz, Tindale, Vollrath, The emerging conception of groups asinformation processors., 1997), keeping track of previous solutions to organizational problems is beneficial as it saves on time, money and effort. Records can be useful in avoiding paths which have been explored previously and found inappropriate, though such records could result in routine responses to non-routine situations (Grofman, 1986). The over reliance of groups on knowledge in the memory may result in bias of judgements as a result of the frequency or likelihood of occurrence of an event. Constructive conflicts are effective in overcoming the bias, since the appropriateness of stored information would be debated on relevance with the present situation (Schwenk, 1990). Hypotheses It has been observed that conflict groups have a higher level of critical assessment and evaluation than consensus groups. Knowledge provided by the OM systems is beneficial in encouraging the group members to evaluate various options, including those evaluated before and recorded. In addition to this, the level of critical evaluation of the assumptions and recommendations is much higher than that of consensus groups. Dialect ical inquiry, DI groups develop counter-plans and seek clarification on assumptions, giving them higher levels of critical evaluation as compared to devil’s advocacy, DA groups, which make inquiries on the suppositions of other subgroups without developing counter plans (Satzinger, Garfield, Nagasundaram, 1999). The first hypothesis is that conflict-based groups with OM structures will indicate a higher level of evaluation than consensus-based groups with OM structures. In addition to this, groups that create conflict using dialectical inquiry will show higher level of critical evaluation than groups using evil’s advocacy approach. Conflict-based groups analyze a wider variety of options, examining all the suppositions of knowledge provided from memory, which helps such groups to comprehend the assignment much better and therefore build their confidence when implementing the strategy. Consensus groups relying on memory knowledge may not critically analyze the options, while DI groups are more critical than DA groups (Laughlin, 1996). This translates to another hypothesis; that conflict-based groups with OM will exhibit greater depth of perception of the decision quality than consensus groups with OM structure. Moreover, DI groups will exhibit greater depth of perception of the decision than DA groups. Induced task conflict is likely to result in arguments over the assumptions based on proof from memory knowledge, leading to improved perception of the decision that is arrived at, as compared to consensus groups, where the debates and evaluations are not as critical. DA groups are not as critical, leading to faster agreements as compared to DI systems, leading to the assumption that; conflict based groups with the support of OM will show lower levels of agreement than consensus based groups with OM support. Moreover, DI groups will show lower levels of agreement than DA groups (Kameda, Hulbert, Tindale, 2002). Research conducted on conflict based groups showed that the members had very low levels of satisfaction with their groups. This was not the case with consensus based groups. This is because the critical analysis in conflict groups creates disharmony and is time consuming, which is likely to cause undesirable effects on the satisfaction of the members, with the whole process. This effect is also likely to occur in DI groups, where the members have to critique suggestions and come up with new ones. This implies that the decision making process is more meticulous for DI groups than DA groups, implying that; conflict based groups with OM structure will exhibit lower levels of contentment with the decision making process than consensus based groups with OM support. In addition to this, there will be lower levels of contentment with the decision process in DI groups than DA groups (Hollingshead, 1996). References Abrams, D., Marques, J. M., Bwon, N., Henson, M. (2000). Pro-norm and anti-normdeviance within and between grou ps. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 78, 906-912. Brauner, E., Scholl, W. (2000). The information processing approach as a perspective for group research. Group Processes and Intergroup Relation , 3, 115-122. Cannon-Bowers, J., Salas, E., Converse, S. (1993). Shared mental models in teamdecision making. In Individual and group decision making (pp. 221-246). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Davis, J. H. (1973). Group decisions and social interactions: A theory of social decision schemes. Psychological Review , 80, 97-125. Davis, J. H., Hinsz, V. B. (1982). Current research problems in group performance and group dynamics. In Group decision making (pp. 1-20). London: Academic Press. Davis, J. H., Kameda, T., Parks, C., Stasson, M., Zimmerman, S. (1989). Some socialmechanics of group decision making: The distribution of opinion, polling sequence, andimplications for consensus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 57, 1000 – 1014. Godwin, W., Restle, F. (1974) . The road to agreement: Subgroup pressures in small groupconsensus processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 30, 500-509. Grofman, B. . (1986). Decision research (Vol. 2). JAI Press: Greenwich, CT. Hackman, J. (1987). The design of work teams. In Handbook oforganizational behavior (pp. 315-342). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hastie, R. (1986). Experimental evidence on group accuracy. JAI Press: Greenwich, CT. Henrich, J., Boyd, R. (1998). The evolution of conformist transmission and the emergence of between-group differences. Evolution and Human Behavior , 19, 215-241. Hinsz, V. B. (1999). Group decision making with responses of a quantitative nature: The theoryof social decision schemes for quantities. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 80, 28-49. Hinsz, V. B., Tindale, R. S., Vollrath, D. A. (1997). The emerging conception of groups asinformation processors. Psychological Bulletin , 121, 43-64. Hogg, M. A. (2001). Social categorization , depersonalization, and group behavior. In Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes (pp. 56-85). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Hollingshead, A. B. (1996). The rank order effe ct in group decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 68, 181-193. Kameda, T., Hulbert, L., Tindale, R. S. (2002). Procedural and agenda effects on political decisions by small groups. New York: Plenum Press. Laughlin, P. R. (1996). Group decision making and collective induction. In Understanding group behavior: Consensual action by small groups (pp. 61-80). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Satzinger, J., Garfield, M., Nagasundaram, M. (1999). The creative process: The effects of Group memory on individual idea generation. Journal of Management Information Systems , 15(4). Schweiger, D., Sandberg, W., Ragan, J. (1986). Group approaches for improving strategicdecision making: A comparative analysis or dialectical inquiry, devil’s advocacy and consensus. A cademy of Management Journal , 29(1). Schwenk, C. (1990). Conflict in organizational decision making: an exploratory study of its effects in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. Management Science , 36(4). This research paper on The Consensus Process Effects on the Decision Making was written and submitted by user Julieta Estes to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

America and Terrorism essays

America and Terrorism essays As I look at the Desmond Egan poem entitled Hiroshima, I dont get past the name without knowing that this to is a questioning on the righteousness of an American Governmental decision. It starts Hiroshima your shadow burns into the granite of history. I look at that and think, yes Japan has paid for its actions in a way no-one could forget, this showing the power and seriousness of America. Egan goes on and talks about the devastation that has been caused. I carry in my mind a glass bullet lodged deep the memory of that epicenter where one hundred thousand souls fused at an instant. I read this and thought of my glass bullet lodged in my memory, and it is the same glass bullet that is lodged in many Americans head too. The sight of two 110 floor buildings on fire, 5000 people being fused together, in 14000 degree flames of jet fuel but this not at a time of war. When we droped the bomb in Hiroshima it was during a time of war with attempt to stop world domination and communist ways. The Islamic extremist is the new "communist" of this century. With the same sense of righteousness and absolute faith they kill anyone who stands in the way of their idea of progress. Like the communist, they view anything that helps their cause, including killing, to be virtuous. They believe that the world will repose in peace under the true faith, Islam, and that those that dont accept this "peace" live in the Da es Harb, or the perpetual world of war. Likewise, when the communists speak of peace they mean world socialism. Those who opposed this "peace" live in the world of struggle. Like the communists, radical Islam misreads this country, our spirit, and our love of liberty. While they may score a couple of victories, based on their own twisted definition of the term, they will also inevitably fail. The communists believe that America will crumble over time. They plot to bring this about ...

How can we make globalization something that brings prosperity to Essay - 1

How can we make globalization something that brings prosperity to everyone - Essay Example Wal-Mart had a net income of 12,731,000,000 on total revenue of $378,799,000,000 in accordance with documents filed by SEC in 2008. By opening trade with other countries, the ability to dictate what is being produced and how, and giving consumers more power, globalization thus helps to flood the market. In a situation where consumers collectively buys only environmentally friendly products, then companies would be forced to a transition to meet our demands thus making a world a cleaner place. Thus, globalization contributes to a sustainable property for all. This helps the people get above the poverty line by increasing competition that in turn helps to bring down the prices of commodities or, services. The competition for goods and services is affected by globalization e.g. the price of goods and services is brought down by increasing their supply. Thus, globalization will help benefit the world. According to the video, De Soto thinks globalization is limited in its current form. Ma jority have been left out in terms of the legal structures that give rise to it. Globalization must actually include the majority of the people on earth to be truly worth its name. it links elites from the post-soviet world and the developing world to the world economy. The legal revolution that has been taking place especially in the west is because of the market economic system. De Soto argues that if these market institutions are brought down, it could take another few centuries to develop. Hernando De Soto is one person that believes in the power of trade. His hard work helped to get the US-Peru Free Trade Agreement passed. He also always speaks out in favor of giving the poor access to wider markets. Elites can only be globalizing with the current existing globalization. Elites can only gain access in developing countries, because the costs of entry are high. Increased trade and open markets are key to eliminating poverty. Once the poor enter the legal system and have access th ey need, they will definitely prosper as per the evidence gathered by the institute of liberty and democracy (ILD). There are many overall benefits of trade. According to law of comparative advantage, the less productive countries will benefit from trade with countries that are more productive. This is because producers who are stronger can trade in order to free up resources thus enabling them to specialize. The lower prices that an economy of scale and specialization engenders are some of the things that the customers will benefit from. The video clearly illustrates that globalization process had already taken place in the late 19th century. The foreign investment and trade were fairly globalised before world war1. Labor markets were more globalised at the beginning of the twentieth century than at its end simply because of low political obstacles to international migration. The great depression and two world wars halted the process of global market integration for almost half a c entury. The process later regains speed and force. Due to faster, reliable and inexpensive transport and communication, some service providers and producers of goods in low-wage countries have been able to challenge high-cost producers in rich countries on

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Law - Essay Example I note that the University reserves the right to check my assignment for plagiarism. Should the reproduction of all or part of an assignment be required by the University for any purpose other than those mentioned above, appropriate authorisation will be sought from me on the relevant form. OR, if submitting this paper electronically as per instructions for the unit, place an ‘X’ in the box below to indicate that you have read this form and filled it in completely and that you certify as above. Please include this page in/with your submission. Any electronic responses to this submission will be sent to your ECU email address (or, where relevant, the digital dropbox for the Blackboard site for LAW1100). Agreement Date  PROCEDURES AND PENALTIES ON LATE ASSIGNMENTS - Refer to the University Admission, Enrolment and Academic Progress Rule 24 and the ECU Assessment Policy ? A student who wishes to defer the submission of an assignment must apply to the lecturer in charge of the relevant unit or course for an extension of the time within which to submit the assignment. ? Where an extension is sought for the submission of an assignment the application must : be in writing - preferably before the due date; and set out the grounds on which deferral is sought. ( see ECU Assessment Policy) ? Assignments submitted after the normal or extended date without approval shall incur a penalty of loss of marks. (see 39.5) ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT Rules (Students) All forms of cheating, plagiarism or collusion are regarded seriously and could result in penalties including loss of marks, exclusion from the unit or cancellation of enrolment. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Please remember to read, store for future reference and ensure that you have submitted: to the correct location the correct assessment piece CONFORMANCE STATEMENT Please note the following, and enter the required information in the grey shaded spaces provided prior to submission of the essay. 1. Your LAW1100 on campus essay should have not less than 2800 effective words but not more than 3200 effective words (without the express permission of the Unit Coordinator) (see LAW1100 Unit Plan (February, 2011, page 9). This essay has †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2801†¦. words (in determining the number of words, do a ‘word count’ from the beginning of your Introduction to the end of your Conclusion, and subtract all headings, sub headings, direct quotations and in text references therein from the result). 2. Your LAW1100 essay should use at least 6 to 10 quality academic reference sources (i.e. in terms of LAW1100 requirements, texts and journal articles – see LAW1100 on campus Essay Preparation Kit (2011), page 19). This essay has †¦13†¦ quality academic referen ce sources (in determining the number of quality academic reference sources for LAW1100 purposes, add up the total number of end references and subtract those which are not texts or journal articles; do not include the number of cases in this count – see point 4 below). 3. Your LAW1100 essay should cite your end reference sources (collectively) on at least 30 occasions in the body of your essay (see LAW1100 on cam

The Importance of Accounting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Importance of Accounting - Research Paper Example There are numerous significances of accounting, which must be accompanied by knowledge on how to perform this activity appropriately. Accounting is also crucial since it assists in ensuring financial accountability in a commercial institution. However, there are individuals that have a different ideology that diminishes the significance of accounting. These individuals sustain the notion that accounting is not as significant as most scholars might insist. The advocates of this notion present different rationales for their argument. Amongst other assertions, there is a claim that conventional record keeping styles are outdated due to technological developments. Therefore, the advocates of this notion conclude that accounting is an extremely complex procedure that wastes an organization’s resources. The main controversy surrounding the issues of the significance of accounting is about the methodology to utilize for thorough accountability. Most individuals are advocates of the G AAP structure, but there are trends that lead to questioning of whether this technique is all-inclusive. The preliminary purpose of accounting is to document transactions in a commercial institution. This comprises documentation of the received and outgoing funds. This procedure has to be undertaken accurately and in adherence to the GAAP regulations. However, some individuals are abandoning commonplace financial statements. These individuals assert that there are other techniques for analyzing data, even in massive magnitudes. These novel techniques of data evaluation diminish the significance of standard financial accounts. Moreover, these ideologies are due to augmenting disparity between users’ desires and what the standard records avail. Furthermore, there are assertions that the procedure of accounting is intricate especially for minute organizations; and hence, insignificant. This discourse is an evaluation of varying ideologies on the significance of accounting. It al so explores why standardized accounting is extremely crucial to an organization despite the trends to this regard. The utilization of the GAAP structure in the financial recording is the preliminary aspect of forecasting, controlling and financial deliberation. Most commercial institutions have an accounts section that utilizes GAAPs to give details relating to the prevailing and future financial circumstances of the institution. Consequently, the deliberation procedures regarding the institution’s projects become effortless. The institutions which utilize appropriate accounting practices are extremely competitive when contrasted with other organizations that utilize substandard practices. Moreover, proper accounting assists in determining the opportunities that an organization should seize in accordance with its financial situation (Kieso, Weygandt and Warfield, 2011). Moreover, the advocates of GAAP structure continue to assert that accounting is significant since, through this recording, there is easy detection of corruption. This documentation also aids in the acquisition of funds from commercial organizations.

Nurse patient relationship and first case of death

Nurse patient relationship and first case of death Introduction The purpose of this essay is to discuss, analyse and reflect upon an acute event which took place when caring for a patient in practice. The writer has chosen to discuss the diagnosis, care and death of an 82 year old gentleman, named James Green (hereafter referred to as James). The writer will discuss the nurse-patient relationship experienced with James, and how his death affected the writer. Due to and to ensure confidentiality, the chosen patients name has been edited, which follows the guidelines of the Department of Health Code of Practice on Confidentiality (2003), NMC Code of Conduct [Confidentiality] (2008) and the Use of Patient Information (DH 2006). The essay will begin with a discussion on reflection including definitions, its purpose, and the advantages and disadvantages of reflection in nursing and education. The essay will then describe the acute care event of his diagnosis and death and reflect upon this. The essay will be structured using Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988) to enable the writer to consciously analyse what happened and why. In certain areas of this essay, it will be appropriate to write in the first person, when describing the incident and discussing the thoughts and feelings experienced at the time (Webb 1992). It is not usually academically appropriate to use the first person, however, in reflective essays, personal thoughts and emotions are required in some areas and therefore Webb argued that it was certainly more appropriate to refer to oneself as I in those sections. From the section subtitled Evaluation, the writer will revert back to writing in the third person, as this is considered more academically appropriate for analysis and evaluation. Reflection was appropriately described by Boud (2001) as turning experience into learning however, it has been considered an important tool in learning and development for many years. Reflection was first documented in 1933, by the philosopher, John Dewey, in his studies on psychology and the way one thinks and learns. Dewey thought of reflection as a form of problem solving, by relating ones experiences to earlier similar ones to explore any commonalities. Another concept of reflection is that it enables the nurse to solve problems or learn from actions through thinking consciously about an activity which would then enable one to learn from any task undertaken. This was argued by Mantzoukas and Jasper (2004) in their studies on reflection and ward activity. However, in nursing, one of the most significant studies on reflection was carried out by Donald Schà ¶n (1983; 1987) in his works on The Reflective Practitioner. Much of the nursing literature regarding and surrounding reflecti on refers to Schà ¶n, which indicates that his work is widely accepted in nursing and nursing education. It is also from Schà ¶n that the term reflective practice was born. Schà ¶n advised that reflection, is a form of story telling, that leads the nurse into selecting particular actions and details of an activity one would normally or abnormally carry out. This in turn allows the nurse to solve details of their actions and learn exactly what in fact they had carried out. In nursing, reflection is used as an aid in recognition and development of knowledge and skills of chronic and acute illness, accidents and the care and treatment of a patient. Reflection following an experience in practice allows a nurse to revisit, explore and learn from an incident and gives an opportunity to relate the incident to theory. According to Maggs and Biley (2000) there are advantages to learning and evaluating practice through reflection. By allowing one to challenge opinions and theories in relation to an incident and relating these back to practice, the nurse can spend time discovering what happened and why. Reflection can be used to evaluate any clinical incident, positive or negative to attempt to better understand and contemplate the events which have taken place, and the behaviour, emotions and actions of not only the nurse, but the patient and others involved at that time Reflection allows time for one to think deeply about a situation and increase knowledge sur rounding that situation (Hannigan 2001). These advantages were mirrored by Gustaffson and Fagerberg (2004). Reflection in nursing is guided by various models of reflection, such as Gibbs Model of Reflection (1988), Johns model (1994), Kolbs Learning Cycle (1984) and Atkins and Murphys model of reflection (1994). This essay will focus upon and use Gibbs Model as the structure for reflecting upon the acute care event witnessed in practice. Gibbs model is considered a useful framework by students for structuring reflection as it is clearly separated into smaller sections titled, description, thoughts and feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and an action plan, in the style of an ongoing cycle of learning and reflecting. Gibbs unlike most other models of reflection encourages the learner to think through emotions and feelings experienced (Jones and Alinier 2006). However, Rolfe et al (2001), and Jones and Alinier (2006) argued that the six sections in the cycle were unspecific and too general and that it assumes that all learners have the same needs. Despite this, for the purpose of thi s essay, Gibbs model is considered the most appropriate. It would appear from the literature read, that there are many more advantages than disadvantages, for the use of reflection in nursing and nurse education. However a strong example which was found when searching for disadvantages was that some writers believe that not all those using reflection would feel comfortable writing openly and honestly about a situation, if they thought someone were to read it. This may be due to a lack of trust or a fear of humiliation or simply being unable to or not wanting to revisit uncomfortable situations or memories (Boud 2001; Tate and Sills 2004). Sumner (2010) discussed success in reflection in terms of moral maturity and found that nurses with little experience, as well as younger nurses, fail to have the experience and maturity to allow them to be comfortable and successful in reflection. Also, Dewey (1933) wrote that reflection only begins when an individual identifies a problem or a need to learn from an activity. If an individual is not to th ink of a problem or activity then reflection may not take place. The structure of Gibbs reflective cycle will begin here with the first section of the cycle, detailing what happened in the Acute Care Event. For the purpose of structuring this essay, each section will be subtitled in accordance with the headings used in Gibbs Cycle. Description As discussed in the introduction, the writer will here describe the illness and death of a patient being cared for in practice. The acute care event which will be focussed on is his diagnosis and death and the emotions felt by the writer following the loss of this patient. James had presented in AE after a fall at home and apart from a previous medical history of a myocardial infarction in 2007 and tachycardia, James was in good health. This was his first fall, however he had trouble recalling if he had tripped, or alternatively collapsed. Following his fall, it was reported he was having mobility problems and was notably short of breath and therefore he was admitted onto the ward, originally for overnight observation. He was being cared for on the ward with regular observations, medication and was prescribed 2litres of oxygen through a nasal cannula for his shortness of breath and lower oxygen saturation (SpO2). He was scoring 0 on most occasions on his Early Warning Score (Morgan et al 1997), which indicated that he was quite well other than his noted shortness of breath. Within 4 days of being admitted to the ward however, James health had not improved and rather, had begun to deteriorate and he was being monitored regularly. He complained of pain in his lower abdomen and advised he had been suffering from constipation intermittently for several weeks. He was prescribed senna to relieve this, however his symptoms persisted. James was then sent by the medical team for an abdominal CT and X-ray, which diagnosed colorectal cancer, with large malignancies in both his colon and rectum, and metastatic cancer of the liver. Consultants sadly diagnosed this as terminal as all 8 segments of the liver were cancerous and the disease was too severe for him to benefit from active treatment and so they recommended he be managed conservatively, ensuring he was comfortable and pain free. The decision was made by the medical staff following discussion with James that resuscitation would not take place in the event of an arrest as doctors decided this would allow James a dignified and peaceful death, given his diagnosis and illness. This is the decision made in most cases with terminal illness or with the very elderly (Jevon 1999). Despite this, staff predicted he would be discharged as he was still well and self-caring. Over the 2 weeks after his diagnosis, James weight decreased and his BMI dropped from19 to 16. His appetite lessened, and he became frail and unable to walk around the ward. On the fourteenth day following his diagnosis, James passed away around 7pm. I was caring for a patient at the bed next to him, when his family discovered he had passed away, and informed me. I closed the curtains around his bed and then reported his death to the nursing staff and my mentor, leaving James family to spend time with him and grieve. James was pain free at the time of his death and appeared settled and comfortable in the short time before his death that evening. Thoughts and Feelings This was my first experience of death, and James and I, along with other staff, had developed a strong Nurse-Patient relationship and rapport. He was a well liked patient on the ward and his diagnosis and death were sudden and relatively unexpected. The nursing staff allowed me to sit away from the ward as I was noticeably distressed, upset and unable to disguise my emotions. The break enabled me to compose myself away from the ward, James and his family and reflect upon what I had just experienced. I felt extremely sad that James had died and also felt as though I was unaware of how to cope or react having never seen a dead body and not experiencing death before. I found it difficult not to cry, knowing that some may find it inappropriate but informed the nursing staff of the fact that this was the first experience of death in an acute setting and that I felt inexperienced in how to deal with the emotions I was experiencing. Over the course of the evening, when speaking to my colleagues, his family, and when at home after my shift, I experienced phases of sadness, powerlessness as a student nurse and guilt. I felt it was appropriate to discuss my experience with my family in order to share my feelings and receive comfort and support from others. Some writers argue that the feeling of guilt and powerlessness is because many feel that somehow they should have done more to prevent the death occurring, despite death in many cases being unavoidable (Kirchhoff et al 2002). Dakin (2003) discussed that the emotions felt by the nurse are more for the impact the loss has on the family, and will begin when observing the emotions of the family. Gerow et al (2010) argue that the way a nurse copes during and after a first death, and whether they are supported by colleagues during this time, will affect their behaviour and emotions in future deaths. I feel I was well supported by my mentor at the time, in that she allowed me to take some time to compose myself after his death, and gave me the opportunity to decide whether or not I carried out last offices. My personal thoughts are that at the time of the incident, I was experiencing a similar grief to that of the loss of a loved one or friend, as James and I had developed a strong nurse-patient relationship and he was an extremely popular patient with all the nursing staff during his time on the ward, although he was always aware of professional boundaries. I feel that in reflection of this event, I was not prepared for experiencing my first death and was unaware of how to cope during the incident and therefore perhaps, I was fearful and displayed too much emotion. Kà ¼bler-Ross (1969, 1973), discussed grief as a five stage model, containing denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. When comparing the emotions felt during this time, it is quite possible that the feelings only cover the depression and acceptance stage of this five stage model. Her theory of grief was originally designed to incorporate the feelings of terminally ill patients into an understandable and recognisable model or cycle, however, the theory also includes a broader theory that those involved in a dying persons care may experience comparable stages of adjustment. Some have argued that this theory is not relevant to many patient or others experiences surrounding death or illness and that since the publication of her book, there has been no further research or evidence to support the five stage model (Bonanno 2001). Lange et al (2009), compared nurses attitudes and emotions when dealing with death regularly, to various attitude scales, such as The  Frommelt Attitude Toward Care of the Dying (FATCOD) Scale (1991), in which it gives a range of potential thoughts and feelings a nurse may encounter and asks the nurse to compare their feelings to these suggestions and gives a total score. Their findings showed that the more experience a nurse had with death and care of the dying, the more positive their feelings and emotions were, and those with little or less experience, showed more negative emotions, such as fear. The study also showed that those with less experience would benefit from education and exposure to ensure they cope effectively with end-of-life care and death, which mirrors other literature on nurses emotions and coping (Lange et al 2009; Hegedus et al 2008; Dunn et al 2005). The writer has read articles on the emotions experienced by students when coping with difficult situations and death which has allowed me to compare the way I felt, to the way other nurses feel in similar situations and literature has confirmed that the emotions felt by myself at the time of the incident are in fact quite common among nurses and in particular nurses with less experience in coping with death (Redinbaugh et al 2003; Lange et al 2009; Dakin 2003). Evaluation Prior to and after James death, following his diagnosis of terminal colorectal cancer, he was well supported by all health professionals involved in his care. He was notably low in mood and quite tearful at times in the 2 weeks before his death. He spoke at length about his feelings and asked a number of questions about his condition and about death. He would often inform the nursing staff of his gratefulness and ability to open up to them about his illness and discuss the shock he was suffering following his diagnosis. He would often advise us that he felt a comfort from knowing someone was there to listen and talk to him. James care was well managed by staff, including the acute care incident of his death where dignity and respect remained a positive element of his care as a whole. As previously documented, he was a popular patient on the ward and all health professionals enjoyed working with him. By deeming James popular, the writer has reflected upon this, and on the nurses attitudes towards other patients on the ward and whether care given to less popular patients was the same. Stockwell (1972) discussed the care given from nursing staff and attitudes, to popular and unpopular patients. This study challenged the opinion that nurses treat all patients the same in a non-judgmental manner and the conclusions found that those patients deemed unpopular were in fact treated less well than those deemed more popular. Reflecting on James and the other patients, this conclusion is fairly true of some, not all, nursing staff on the ward, in that there were similar patients whom were deemed more difficult to care for, and they were often not given as much time or support from staff. This theory has been revisited a number of times with different studies and reviews, man y of which reaching the same conclusions as Stockwell (English and Morse, 1988; Carveth 1995; Conway 2000). There are positive and negative elements to this, in that James was given excellent care and support during his time on the ward, and there is doubt whether the nursing and medical staff could have done more to reassure James or make him comfortable, however, it has made the writer realise that perhaps other patients were not cared for in the same way. At the time of the incident, immediately after being informed of James death; the writer feels as though they coped well, giving the family time and privacy to come to terms with his death, away from nursing staff and other patients. The writer was strong enough to not show any outward emotion at the time, and it was only when informing the other staff, that sadness and distress occurred. The writer feels the way they coped around his family was a positive experience, as they could see sadness from a nursing point of view, but other emotions were appropriately fairly hidden until away from them. Some may argue that perhaps at the time there was too much emotion exposed overall, however, again, these emotions did not show in front of James family (Bolton 2000). However, one cannot say that a tear was not shed when speaking to them, but the writer believes this to be an appropriate way of empathising with the relatives of patients following the death of their loved one, and for that, t he relatives are most grateful (Redinbaugh et al 2003). Dakin (2003), on a study of emotions of nursing students, found that most, if not all, have experienced a sense of loss and grief and have become emotional at the loss of a patient at some point, but mainly in the earlier stages of training and on the first experience of death. Redinbaugh et al (2003) again, discussed the emotions of Doctors and in particular medical students, following the death of a patient. Their findings showed that the more time that is spent with a patient; the more vulnerable the doctor is to feelings of loss when the patient dies. Although this paper refers to Medical staff and students, this is true for all health professionals, and can relate very strongly to nurses. As described above, the nursing staff allowed the writer to take some time away from the ward to stop crying and reflect upon what had and what was being experienced. One of the nursing staff came to discuss the writers feelings following his death and made sure the writer wasnt experiencing too much shock or distress. The support from nursing staff given during that time, was a very positive experience and extremely beneficial to learning. This was the writers first experience of Clinical Supervision, giving the writer time to discuss what had happened and the feelings being experienced (Cutliffe et al 2010). Clinical supervision was described by the NMC (1993) as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦professional support and learning which enables individual practitioners to develop knowledge and competenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This best describes the support the writer was given during this time and Bonanno et al (2001) argue that talking, rather than writing, about ones emotions following trauma or loss is highly beneficial to learning. Analysis In this section, the writer will discuss how James was cared for during his time on the ward, and select key themes from the incident which will enable the writer to discuss and analyse certain elements of the incident. The key themes which have been identified from the description and on reflection are the nurse-patient relationship, grief, and coping with the first experience of death. Prior to James death, following his diagnosis of terminal colorectal cancer, he was well supported by all Health professionals involved in his care. As previously documented, he was a popular patient on the ward and had a strong positive professional relationship with all staff involved in his care. The writer feels as though this was a positive element of James care and that effective communication took place between staff and patient in this instance. James appeared happy on the ward and would often praise nursing staff for their ability to talk to him and offer comfort in a distressing time. The nurse-patient relationship was described as a therapeutic relationship between a nurse and a client built on a series of interactions and developing over time in Mosbys Medical Dictionary (2009), which the writer believes to be a positive description and true to that of the relationship with James. The nurse patient-relationship in this instance is a factor of this acute care event that the writer has chosen to reflect upon. The nurse-patient relationship was documented by Peplau (1952) in the Interpersonal Relationship Model, where Peplau wrote of this being an essential element of nursing to enhance a patients well-being. This was an essential part of James care and an element that he himself was grateful for during a difficult and emotional time. Pullen and Mathias (2010) wrote that the key to the patient feeling a sense of peace and well-being was based on effective communication and building a therapeutic relationship. Nicholson et al (2010) also discussed effective communication and relationships as a positive promoter of dignity. Sumner (2010) wrote that effective nurse-patient relationships are only present when the nurse is competent, mature and experienced enough to manage themselves in the interaction. This could be seen as a disadvantage in nursing as a whole as many nurses are young and less socially mature or experienced. Also those fitting this category may believe this to be a false claim of younger nurses which the writer can also relate to. She also wrote that in caring as a nurse, there are two players involved, the patient and the nurse, who both have feelings and needs which need to be addressed in the interaction. With relation to the connection with dying patients, many nurses find it difficult to approach a patient and build a positive nurse-patient relationship due to fear, or the fear of losing that patient. This however can frustrate the nurse as they may feel a duty to connect with that person as well as comforting the patient when they are in distress or are frightened (Moore, 1997). Mok and Chiu (2004) found that the nurse-patient relationship in palliative care often developed into more of a friendship, as a nurse would spend more time with the families and much more time listening to the fears of patients and attending to their needs. The relationship being seen as a friendship was due to the depth of intensity of the relationship. This is due to the patient discussing extremely personal and emotional aspects of their life which would not normally occur, however this is a one-sided intimacy (Spross 1996). This theory was true of the relationship the writer and other health profession als had with James. For this reason, it can be understood why nurses sometimes feel a great sense of loss after the death of a patient they have cared for, as a close relationship may have formed, particularly with long term patients. Another key point recovered from this reflection, is that of the sadness and grief experienced, following the death of this patient. As documented in the section subtitled feelings, the writer feels as though they experienced a sense of loss which can be related to grief which may be similar to that experienced following the death of a friend. This is due to the positive nurse-patient relationship with James and as previously written, the fact that he was a popular and well thought of patient on the ward. Because his death was sudden following the diagnosis of colorectal cancer, the writer believes that none of the health professionals involved were prepared for his rapid deterioration and death. Again, Kà ¼bler-Ross (1969; 1973), describes grief and loss as a 5 stage model, commonly known as the five stages of grief. In it, the stages described are, denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance, however an individual may not experience these stages in the order Kà ¼bler-Ross described, nor may they experience all of the five stages. When comparing the emotions felt during this time to this model, it is quite possible that the feelings experienced only cover the depression and acceptance stage of this five stage model. However, in Kà ¼bler-Rosss description of these stages, she writes that depression involves a person becoming detached from emotion, non-acceptant of affection or acceptant of efforts to improve emotion. When comparing this description to the emotions felt during this time, it may be possible that one did not experience depression in the form that is described and may only have experienced the acceptance stage of her five stage model. In this stage Kà ƒ ¼bler-Ross describes the acceptance as coming to terms with the loss (Kà ¼bler-Ross 1969). Bonanno (2002, 2004, and 2009) is a popular critic of the work of Kà ¼bler-Ross and other theorists. In his studies, and his book titled The Other Side of Sadness: What the New Science of Bereavement Tells Us About Life After a Loss, Bonanno states that grief does not necessarily occur in stages, as has previously been argued, rather that it contains four common sections (trajectories) which different people facing loss will experience. The four trajectories, as detailed by Bonanno are resilience, recovery, chronic dysfunction and delayed grief. Bonanno has been highly acclaimed by many psychologists and his peers however he is criticised also for his argument that humans can be resilient, or hardy in the face of trauma, which overturns the theories we have become accustomed to such as Kà ¼bler-Ross stages of grief and Freuds theory of repressed memories and coping. Matzo et al (2003) argued that the loss of a patient can affect all involved, including the patient, the family and the nurse themselves and that a nurse will experience a personal feeling of grief and confront it with their own coping skills. In terms of the sadness felt by the writer at the time of the death, as previously discussed, some may argue that from a professional perspective, expressing emotion in such way is not appropriate , however studies carried out have shown expression of emotion to be a healing power and can help with coping with distress in future incidents (Kennedy-Moore and Watson 1999, 2001; Pennebaker, 1997). In relation to this, Consedine et al, (2002), argue that inexpressiveness can be harmful and can cause delayed distress on the body, however some have argued that in terms of coping professionally, not expressing emotion or a lack of association with an emotional event, may be beneficial (Bonnano 2001). In nurse education, the theory surrounding death and dying is taught in terms of definition, assessment and intervention, and all student nurses are aware of these from an early stage; however, little or no teaching is given on death, emotion, grief and the feeling of loss experienced by the nurse (Matzo 2003). This in turn can affect the way a student experiencing a death for the first time can behave and can affect the emotions experienced and displayed, as it did for the writer on the death of James. As discussed earlier Dakin (2003), found that most nursing students when asked to discuss an experience of death, have shared a sense of loss and grief and have become emotional at the loss of a patient at some point which has argued that the sense of emotion felt by the writer is in fact relatively normal, particularly when less experienced with emotion situations. Conclusion Following the incident, when reflecting upon what happened and the feelings of the writer, it could be confirmed by the writer that James was given excellent care and support during his time on the ward and in death, and there is doubt whether the nursing and medical staff could have done more to reassure James or make him comfortable. James was pain free at the time of his death and appeared settled and comfortable. The writer feels this incident, although sad and emotional, to be overall quite positive, in that it has enabled the writer to learn from the emotions experienced and build strengths in dealing with similar situations. This incident and the chance the writer has had to reflect upon what happened at the time, has allowed the writer to discover the thoughts and feelings of the incident and relate them to literature. As this was the writers first experience of death and dying, there is no other previous clinical incident to relate these feelings and behaviour to, although a similar incident which has recently taken place, will be discussed in the next section. From speaking with doctors and nursing staff on the subject of coping with the death of a patient and coping with the sudden diagnosis of terminal illness, the author has learned more about the topic and how to approach it. The writer has also found it positive to learn that the emotions experienced are common, particularly among nurses and that emotion is a natural human response that in some cases cannot be avoided (Dakin 2003; Matzo 2003; Redinbaugh et al 2003). Working with and meeting James was a very heart warming and at the same time educational experience for the writer, in that his death, although emotional, has enabled the writer to learn from what happened and from the emotions experienced and build upon strengths in dealing with similar distressing experiences in their future training and career. The writer feels happy that had the opportunity to work with James, and happy, and thankful that it was him whom the writers first experience of death was with. Action Plan From writing this reflective essay, the writer has learned valuable theory and skills in dealing with death and dying patients and how emotion is quite normal in the experience of death. From reading literature, it has helped me understand more about death, grief and about how nurses cope and develop coping skills when dealing with emotional situations. I felt it necessary to review literature, to compare my feelings and to discover if others experience similar a similar sense of loss. On discovering that the emotions felt following a first death experience are common, it gave the writer assurance and confidence that they would cope better the next time a death occurred in practice. Coincidently, after reading this literature, recently, another elderly patient passed away whilst the writer was in practice. Similarly to James, she was a well liked patient on the ward and her death was relatively unexpected, although she was frail and elderly. From reflecting now upon how the writer coped with James death and how they coped with the death of the second patient, an 90 year old lady, the writer can see a substantial difference in the emotions felt during each incident. This confirms that the writer has gained confidence, knowledge and skills in dealing with death and dying patients. The writer learned how to shed a tear without becoming overly emotional, and how to offer sympathy and support to the family of the deceased without showing too much sadness. The writer believes this is due to not only the literature read for this essay, but also the support received from the nursing staff following James death, and the clinical supervision received on the ward by nursing staff at the time. This mirrors Bonannos (2001) argument that talking about an incident and ones emotions is highly beneficial and potentially more beneficial that writing or reflecting about it. The writer does feel however that student nurses should be given more ed

The Jubilee Singers of Fisk University :: American History Essays

The Jubilee Singers of Fisk University From the mid-1800s, most black institutions of higher education fielded a group of jubilee singers and/or a vocal quartet to sing spirituals. These groups toured the nation and "represented" the institution outside the local community. One of the earliest and most famous of these groups were the Jubilee Singers from Fisk University. According to Ray Funk, in his essay accompanying the Document compilation EARLY NEGRO VOCAL QUARTETS, there is only one recording from the 1890s extant of an African-American vocal group, the Standard Quartette. While this Fisk group was active in the l890s, it continued on throughout the years, of course with some different members each year and a complete turnover of members within each four years. For the most part, the singers were students at Fisk. I don't think you are going to find anything recorded originally before 1900, but for some modern recordings of the Fisk Jubilee Singers you should look for a 1994 Smithsonian/Folkways recording called: African American Spirituals : The Concert Tradition SF40072 At a time when most black music was being performed by white minstrel musicians in blackface and vulgar caricature, a small group of exceptionally well-trained and talented black singers at Fisk University in Nashville achieved world-wide renown for their stirring and very professional performance of traditional black spirituals. Originally, the group was composed of two quartets and a pianist, a woman named Wells, under the direction of the University musical director, George L. White. In 1871 this small group set out to raise money for the struggling little university (founded in 1866). Over the next decade they had toured most of the northern states, had performed at the White House, toured England and much of Europe and had played for Queen Victoria. The group was given its name by director White. In Old Testament history, each fiftieth Pentecost was followed by a "year of jubilee" - a year in which Hebrew law required that all slaves be set free. Organized in 1871, in the dark shadow of slavery, the "Jubilee Singers" seemed a most appropriate name. Most of the students at Fisk had been former slaves. In terms of musical history, the primary significance of the Jubilee Singers is that they introduced to the world for the first time a magnificent body of folk music -- slave songs, spirituals -- which celebrated life, survival, victory.